Politik Luar Negeri Tiongkok Sejak Tahun 1978: Transisi, Rebalancing dan Aktivisme

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January 29, 2022

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February 28, 2022

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Abstract

This article seeks to explain and analyze the changes and continuity in China’s foreign policy since 1978. The rise of China is perceived as both remarkable and threatening by many countries. Like all great powers, China’s rising power has been to further assert its dominance especially in Asia. However, since its declaration in 1949, China’s foreign policy had undergone significant adjustments to adapt with both domestic and international situation. In this article, the author the author divides the development of post-Mao Chinese foreign policy into 3 main phases, namely, Transition, Rebalancing and Activism. Of the three phases, the author will explain and analyze the changes and continuity that occur in the development of China's foreign policy. This artcile uses the Neoclassical Realist Theory of foreign policy to explain the evolution in China’s foreign policy. The author uses a qualitative approach with the literature study method as a data collection technique.

Artikel ini berusaha menjelaskan dan menganalisis perubahan dan kesinambungan kebijakan luar negeri China sejak 1978. Kebangkitan China dianggap luar biasa dan mengancam oleh banyak negara. Seperti semua kekuatan besar, kekuatan China yang meningkat telah semakin menegaskan dominasinya terutama di Asia. Namun, sejak dideklarasikan pada tahun 1949, kebijakan luar negeri China telah mengalami penyesuaian yang signifikan untuk beradaptasi dengan situasi domestik dan internasional. Dalam artikel ini, penulis membagi perkembangan politik luar negeri China pasca era Mao menjadi 3 fase utama, yaitu Transisi, Rebalancing dan Aktivisme. Dari ketiga fase tersebut, penulis akan menjelaskan dan menganalisis perubahan dan kontinuitas yang terjadi dalam perkembangan politik luar negeri China. Artikel ini menggunakan Teori Neoklasik Realis kebijakan luar negeri untuk menjelaskan evolusi dalam kebijakan luar negeri China. Penulis menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif dengan metode studi kepustakaan sebagai teknik pengumpulan data.

Keywords

China Foreign Policy national interest neoclassical realism

References

Alden, C., & Aran, A. (2017). Foreign Policy Analysis: New approaches . Oxon: Routledge.
Alon, I., Zhang, W., & Lattemann, C. (2019). Introduction. Dalam W. Zhang, I. Alon, & C. Lattemann (Eds.), China's Belt and Road Initiative: Changing the Rules of Globalization (hlm. 1-13). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bainus, A., & Rachman, J. B. (2018). Editorial: Kepentingan Nasional dalam Hubungan Internasional. Intermestic: Journal Of International Studies, 2(2), 109-115. DOI:10.24198/intermestic.v2n2.1.
Beretta, S. (2017). Introduction: China the Rest of the World Between Symmetries and ‘Games of Mirrors’. Dalam S. Beretta, A. Berkofsky, & L. Zhang (Eds.), Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics,Society, and International Relations (hlm. 1-9). Cham: Springer.
Blasko, D. J. (2012). Always Faithful: The PLA from 1949 to 1989. Dalm D. A. Graff, & R. Higham (Eds.), A Military History of China (hlm. 249-266). Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky.
Blasko, D. J. (2014). The Evolution of Core Concepts: People's War, Active Defense, and Offshore Defense. Dalam R. Kamphausen, D. Lai, & T. Tanner (Eds.), Assessing the People's Liberation Army in the Hu Jintao Era (hlm. 81-128). Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press.
Brown, K. (2010). China’s soft power diplomacy in the 21st century. In S. Breslin (Ed.), Handbook of China’s International Relations (hlm. 85-93). London: Routledge.
Brown, K. (2017). China's World: What Does China Want? London: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd.
Bush, R. (2005). Lee Teng-hui and “Separatism”. Dalam N. B. Tucker (Eds.), Dangerous Strait: The U.S.—Taiwan—China Crisis (hlm. 70-92). New York: Columbia University Press.
Cabestan, J.-P. (2010). China’s new diplomacy: old wine in a new bottle? Dalam S. Breslin (Eds.), Handbook of China's International Relations (hlm. 1-10). London: Routledge.
Chan, L.-H. (2020). Can China remake regional order? Contestation with Indiaover the Belt and Road Initiative. Global Change, Peace & Security, DOI: 10.1080/14781158.2020.1772215.
Chang, D. W.-W. (1991). China Under Deng Xiaoping: Political and Economic Reform. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cheng, J. Y. (2016). China's foreign policy: challenges and prospects. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company.
Coker, C. (2015). The improbable war: China, the United States and the continuing logic of great power conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.
Danner, L. K. (2018). China’s Grand Strategy: Contradictory Foreign Policy? Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Davidson, H. (2022, Januari 24). China sends largest incursion of warplanes into Taiwan defence zone since October. Diakses Januari 29, 2022, dari The Guardian: theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/24/china-sends-largest-incursion-of-warplanes-into-taiwan-defence-zone-since-october
Dreyer, J. T. (1988). Deng Xiaoping And Modernization Of the Chinese Military. Armed Forces & Society, 14(2), 215–231, DOI: 10.1177/0095327X8801400203.
Fong, W., & Sakib, N. (2021). A “Good” Country without Democracy: Can China's Outward FDI buy a Positive State Image Overseas? Politics & Policy, 49: 1146-1191, DOI: 10.1111/polp.12428.
Garver, J. W. (2016). China's Quest: The History of Foreign Relations of The People's Republic of China. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hille, K., & Sevastopulo, D. (2022, Januari 24). China raises threat to Taiwan with naval presence east of island. Diakses Januari 29, 2022, dari Financial Times: https://www.ft.com/content/b6d0ea59-8439-4325-a5fe-edce8db9b3dd
Jacques, M. (2009). When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. New York: The Penguin Press.
Ji, Y. (2014). The PLA and Diplomacy: unraveling myths about the military role in foreign policy making. Journal of Contemporary China, 23(86), 236-254, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2013.832526.
Jiechi, Y. (2013, Agustus 16). Innovations in China's diplomatic theory and practice under new conditions. Diakses Januari 24, 2022, dari China Daily: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-08/16/content_16899892.htm
Kalman, B. (2016, April 18). Growing Militarization of South China Sea, US-China confrontation, two case studies. Diakses Januari 28, 2022, dari Global Research: http://www. globalresearch. ca/growing-militarization-of-the-southchina-sea-us-china-confrontation/5520564
Kurth, J. (2001). First War of the Global Era: Kosovo and U.S. Grand Strategy. Dalam A. J. Bacevich, & E. A. Cohen (Eds.), War Over Kosovo: Politics and Strategy in a Global Age (hlm. 63-96). New York: Columbia University Press.
Leavy, P. (2017). Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Method, Arts-Based, and Community-Based Participatory Research Approaches. New York: The Guilford Press.
Li, N. (2013). China's Evolving Naval Strategy and Capabilities in the Hu Jintao Era. Dalam R. Kamphausen, D. Lai, & T. Tanner (Eds.), Assessing the People's Liberation Army in the Hu Jintao Era (hlm. 257-299). Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press.
Liua, T., & Woo, W. T. (2018). Understanding the U.S.-China Trade War. China Economic Journal, 11(3), 319-340.
Lobell, S. E. (2009). Threat assessment, the state, and foreign policy: a neoclassical realist model. Dalam S. E. Lobell, N. M. Ripsman, & J. W.
Taliaferro (Eds.), Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (hlm. 42-74). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Malik, M. (2013). Historical Fiction: China's South China Sea Claims. World Affairs , 176, no. 1: 83–90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43554768.
Mantzopoulos, V., & Shen, R. (2011). The political economy of China’s systemic transformation : 1979 to the present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mark, C.-k. (2012). China and The World Since 1945: An International History. Oxon: Routledge.
Medeiros, E. S. (2009). China’s International Behavior: Activism, Opportunism, and Diversification. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
Mingfu, L. (2015). China Dream: Great Power Thinking and Strategic Posture in the Post-American Era. . New York: CN Times Books.
Monika, A. (2020). APEC: Indonesia as a Balancer Among US-China. Jurnal Asia Pacific Studies, 4(1), 60-71.
Mühlhahn, K. (2019). Making China modern : from the Great Qing to Xi Jinping . Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Qingguo, J. (2005). Learning to Live with the Hegemon: evolution of China's policy toward the US since the end of the Cold War. Journal of Contemporary China, 14(44), 395-407, DOI: 10.1080/10670560500115036.
Raditio, K. H. (2019). Understanding China’s Behaviour in the South China Sea. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rosyidin, M. (2020). Teori Hubungan Internasional: Dari Perspektif Klasik Sampai Non-Barat. Depok: Rajawali Pers.
Salvini, G. (2017). The Relations Between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the United States (US). Dalam S. Beretta, A. Berkofsky, & L. Zhang (Eds.), Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations (hlm. 95-113). Cham: Springer.
Santoso, S. P. (2021). Percaturan Geopolitik Kawasan Laut China Selatan. Sleman: Deepublish.
Steinbock, D. (2018). US-China trade war and its global impacts. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 4(04), 515-542.
Suettinger, R. L. (2003). Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.
Tisdell, C. (2009). Economic Reform and Openness in China: China’s Development Policies in the Last 30 Years. Economic Analysis & Policy, 39(2), 271-294.
Tretiak, D. (1979). China's Vietnam War and Its Consequences. The China Quarterly, 80, 740-767. DOI:10.1017/S0305741000046038.
Vogel, E. F. (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the transformation of China . Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Xiao, R. (2013, Oktober 4). Modeling a “New Type of Great Power Relations”: A Chinese Viewpoint. Diakses Januari 20, 2022, dari The Asan Forum: https://theasanforum.org/modeling-a-new-type-of-great-power-relations-a-chinese-viewpoint/
Yueh, L. (2010). The Economy of China. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.
Zeng, J. (2016). Constructing a “new type of great power relations”: the state of debate in China (1998-2014). The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 18(2), 422–442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148115620991.
Zhang, B. (2010). Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition: Trends and Implications. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 39(2), 39-68.
Zhang, Y. (2018). The US–China Trade War. Indian Journal of Asian Affairs, 31(1,2): 53-74.
Zhao, M. (2021). The Belt and Road Initiative and China–US strategic competition. China International Strategy Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42533-021-00087-7.
Zhao, S. (2015). A New Model of Big Power Relations? China–US strategic rivalry and balance of power in the Asia–Pacific. Journal of Contemporary China, 24(93), 377-397, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2014.953808.
Zhao, S. (2017). American Reflections on the Engagement with China and Responses to President Xi’s New Model of Major Power Relations. Journal of Contemporary China, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2017.1274814.
Zhao, S. (2018). China and the South China Sea Arbitration: Geopolitics Versus International Law. Journal of Contemporary China, 27:109, 1-15, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2017.1363012.
Zhao, S. (2019). Engagement on the Defensive: From the Mismatched Grand Bargain to the Emerging US–China Rivalry. Journal of Contemporary China, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2018.1562730.

References

Alden, C., & Aran, A. (2017). Foreign Policy Analysis: New approaches . Oxon: Routledge.

Alon, I., Zhang, W., & Lattemann, C. (2019). Introduction. Dalam W. Zhang, I. Alon, & C. Lattemann (Eds.), China's Belt and Road Initiative: Changing the Rules of Globalization (hlm. 1-13). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Bainus, A., & Rachman, J. B. (2018). Editorial: Kepentingan Nasional dalam Hubungan Internasional. Intermestic: Journal Of International Studies, 2(2), 109-115. DOI:10.24198/intermestic.v2n2.1.

Beretta, S. (2017). Introduction: China the Rest of the World Between Symmetries and ‘Games of Mirrors’. Dalam S. Beretta, A. Berkofsky, & L. Zhang (Eds.), Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics,Society, and International Relations (hlm. 1-9). Cham: Springer.

Blasko, D. J. (2012). Always Faithful: The PLA from 1949 to 1989. Dalm D. A. Graff, & R. Higham (Eds.), A Military History of China (hlm. 249-266). Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky.

Blasko, D. J. (2014). The Evolution of Core Concepts: People's War, Active Defense, and Offshore Defense. Dalam R. Kamphausen, D. Lai, & T. Tanner (Eds.), Assessing the People's Liberation Army in the Hu Jintao Era (hlm. 81-128). Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press.

Brown, K. (2010). China’s soft power diplomacy in the 21st century. In S. Breslin (Ed.), Handbook of China’s International Relations (hlm. 85-93). London: Routledge.

Brown, K. (2017). China's World: What Does China Want? London: I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd.

Bush, R. (2005). Lee Teng-hui and “Separatism”. Dalam N. B. Tucker (Eds.), Dangerous Strait: The U.S.—Taiwan—China Crisis (hlm. 70-92). New York: Columbia University Press.

Cabestan, J.-P. (2010). China’s new diplomacy: old wine in a new bottle? Dalam S. Breslin (Eds.), Handbook of China's International Relations (hlm. 1-10). London: Routledge.

Chan, L.-H. (2020). Can China remake regional order? Contestation with Indiaover the Belt and Road Initiative. Global Change, Peace & Security, DOI: 10.1080/14781158.2020.1772215.

Chang, D. W.-W. (1991). China Under Deng Xiaoping: Political and Economic Reform. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Cheng, J. Y. (2016). China's foreign policy: challenges and prospects. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing Company.

Coker, C. (2015). The improbable war: China, the United States and the continuing logic of great power conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.

Danner, L. K. (2018). China’s Grand Strategy: Contradictory Foreign Policy? Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

Davidson, H. (2022, Januari 24). China sends largest incursion of warplanes into Taiwan defence zone since October. Diakses Januari 29, 2022, dari The Guardian: theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/24/china-sends-largest-incursion-of-warplanes-into-taiwan-defence-zone-since-october

Dreyer, J. T. (1988). Deng Xiaoping And Modernization Of the Chinese Military. Armed Forces & Society, 14(2), 215–231, DOI: 10.1177/0095327X8801400203.

Fong, W., & Sakib, N. (2021). A “Good” Country without Democracy: Can China's Outward FDI buy a Positive State Image Overseas? Politics & Policy, 49: 1146-1191, DOI: 10.1111/polp.12428.

Garver, J. W. (2016). China's Quest: The History of Foreign Relations of The People's Republic of China. New York: Oxford University Press.

Hille, K., & Sevastopulo, D. (2022, Januari 24). China raises threat to Taiwan with naval presence east of island. Diakses Januari 29, 2022, dari Financial Times: https://www.ft.com/content/b6d0ea59-8439-4325-a5fe-edce8db9b3dd

Jacques, M. (2009). When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. New York: The Penguin Press.

Ji, Y. (2014). The PLA and Diplomacy: unraveling myths about the military role in foreign policy making. Journal of Contemporary China, 23(86), 236-254, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2013.832526.

Jiechi, Y. (2013, Agustus 16). Innovations in China's diplomatic theory and practice under new conditions. Diakses Januari 24, 2022, dari China Daily: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-08/16/content_16899892.htm

Kalman, B. (2016, April 18). Growing Militarization of South China Sea, US-China confrontation, two case studies. Diakses Januari 28, 2022, dari Global Research: http://www. globalresearch. ca/growing-militarization-of-the-southchina-sea-us-china-confrontation/5520564

Kurth, J. (2001). First War of the Global Era: Kosovo and U.S. Grand Strategy. Dalam A. J. Bacevich, & E. A. Cohen (Eds.), War Over Kosovo: Politics and Strategy in a Global Age (hlm. 63-96). New York: Columbia University Press.

Leavy, P. (2017). Research Design: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed Method, Arts-Based, and Community-Based Participatory Research Approaches. New York: The Guilford Press.

Li, N. (2013). China's Evolving Naval Strategy and Capabilities in the Hu Jintao Era. Dalam R. Kamphausen, D. Lai, & T. Tanner (Eds.), Assessing the People's Liberation Army in the Hu Jintao Era (hlm. 257-299). Carlisle, PA: Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press.

Liua, T., & Woo, W. T. (2018). Understanding the U.S.-China Trade War. China Economic Journal, 11(3), 319-340.

Lobell, S. E. (2009). Threat assessment, the state, and foreign policy: a neoclassical realist model. Dalam S. E. Lobell, N. M. Ripsman, & J. W.

Taliaferro (Eds.), Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (hlm. 42-74). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Malik, M. (2013). Historical Fiction: China's South China Sea Claims. World Affairs , 176, no. 1: 83–90. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43554768.

Mantzopoulos, V., & Shen, R. (2011). The political economy of China’s systemic transformation : 1979 to the present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Mark, C.-k. (2012). China and The World Since 1945: An International History. Oxon: Routledge.

Medeiros, E. S. (2009). China’s International Behavior: Activism, Opportunism, and Diversification. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Mingfu, L. (2015). China Dream: Great Power Thinking and Strategic Posture in the Post-American Era. . New York: CN Times Books.

Monika, A. (2020). APEC: Indonesia as a Balancer Among US-China. Jurnal Asia Pacific Studies, 4(1), 60-71.

Mühlhahn, K. (2019). Making China modern : from the Great Qing to Xi Jinping . Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Qingguo, J. (2005). Learning to Live with the Hegemon: evolution of China's policy toward the US since the end of the Cold War. Journal of Contemporary China, 14(44), 395-407, DOI: 10.1080/10670560500115036.

Raditio, K. H. (2019). Understanding China’s Behaviour in the South China Sea. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rosyidin, M. (2020). Teori Hubungan Internasional: Dari Perspektif Klasik Sampai Non-Barat. Depok: Rajawali Pers.

Salvini, G. (2017). The Relations Between the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and the United States (US). Dalam S. Beretta, A. Berkofsky, & L. Zhang (Eds.), Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations (hlm. 95-113). Cham: Springer.

Santoso, S. P. (2021). Percaturan Geopolitik Kawasan Laut China Selatan. Sleman: Deepublish.

Steinbock, D. (2018). US-China trade war and its global impacts. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 4(04), 515-542.

Suettinger, R. L. (2003). Beyond Tiananmen: The Politics of U.S.-China Relations, 1989-2000. Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

Tisdell, C. (2009). Economic Reform and Openness in China: China’s Development Policies in the Last 30 Years. Economic Analysis & Policy, 39(2), 271-294.

Tretiak, D. (1979). China's Vietnam War and Its Consequences. The China Quarterly, 80, 740-767. DOI:10.1017/S0305741000046038.

Vogel, E. F. (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the transformation of China . Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Xiao, R. (2013, Oktober 4). Modeling a “New Type of Great Power Relations”: A Chinese Viewpoint. Diakses Januari 20, 2022, dari The Asan Forum: https://theasanforum.org/modeling-a-new-type-of-great-power-relations-a-chinese-viewpoint/

Yueh, L. (2010). The Economy of China. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing Limited.

Zeng, J. (2016). Constructing a “new type of great power relations”: the state of debate in China (1998-2014). The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 18(2), 422–442. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148115620991.

Zhang, B. (2010). Chinese Foreign Policy in Transition: Trends and Implications. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 39(2), 39-68.

Zhang, Y. (2018). The US–China Trade War. Indian Journal of Asian Affairs, 31(1,2): 53-74.

Zhao, M. (2021). The Belt and Road Initiative and China–US strategic competition. China International Strategy Review, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42533-021-00087-7.

Zhao, S. (2015). A New Model of Big Power Relations? China–US strategic rivalry and balance of power in the Asia–Pacific. Journal of Contemporary China, 24(93), 377-397, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2014.953808.

Zhao, S. (2017). American Reflections on the Engagement with China and Responses to President Xi’s New Model of Major Power Relations. Journal of Contemporary China, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2017.1274814.

Zhao, S. (2018). China and the South China Sea Arbitration: Geopolitics Versus International Law. Journal of Contemporary China, 27:109, 1-15, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2017.1363012.

Zhao, S. (2019). Engagement on the Defensive: From the Mismatched Grand Bargain to the Emerging US–China Rivalry. Journal of Contemporary China, DOI: 10.1080/10670564.2018.1562730.

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