A Comparative Study of Euphemism in English and Buginese : Pragmatic Stylistics Contexts

The research explores the euphemism in English and Buginese. The difference of one language with other languages can be seen from the aspect of using a euphemism. Likewise, what happens to the differences and similarities of the two languages.This research attempts to describe the form and function of euphemism in English and Buginese Descriptive qualitative method is used to reveal the form and function of euphemism by comparative study to find out the similarities and differences of euphemism in English and Buginese. There are 16 forms of euphemism in English based on Allan and Burridge’s theory. While in Buginese there are 18 form of euphemism, According to this theory, there are 3 main points of the function of euphemism in English while the function of euphemism in Buginese consists of 6 main points. This research shown that euphemism form and function of euphemism in Buginese more complex than euphemism form and fuction in English.


Introduction
Language has an interpersonal nature in which language serves as a speaker's attitude and as an influence on attitudes and behavior of the speakers. Language has expressive and informative function (Leech, 1982: 205). Moreover, language also has a physiological function, which is aimed to keep the lines of communication still open and to maintain good social relationships. When a person communicates, speaks or writes a sentence in one particular language, they also maintain a social relationship. As the result, they will consider the norms that prevail in the socio-cultural environment in which they speak. It is implemented in order to establish a harmonious relationship and an effective communication.
The harmonious relationship in society including the language life will be realized by taking in to the cultural custom. One way to express something bad and ugly to be good or in other word something crude to be smooth are defines as euphemism. According to Keraf (2007: 132) euphemism is an expression that does not offend people, soft, and it is used to replace insulting words, offensive or suggestive something unpleasant.
Euphemism in English is necessary to smooth the verbal abuse, the name of body parts, mental and physical abilities, appearance, age, social and financial status, etc. In this case, English and Americans are more attentive than Indonesian.
Not only in English, but Buginese also practices euphemism. Buginese is well known as a smooth language. The using of euphemism in Buginese is indispensable as a part of politeness term. Broadly, the reasons for using euphemism in Buginese are: to avoid from declaring something frightening and unpleasant, to disguise something sensitive, to discuss taboo things, to express respect to the listeners, and to bring close with listeners.
Based on the field, the used of euphemism in Buginese is in the matter relating to physical defect, disaster and death. In addition, euphemism is also used to refer to community members deviating action, disgusting things, and showed the modesty behavior. The used of euphemism in Buginese indicates the greatness of Buginese community. The Buginese people used euphemism as a form of respect for the speaking partner or object of conversation.

Understanding of Euphemism
Harper (2013) provides an etymological explanation of the word 'euphemism' derived from Greek, composed of the word 'eu' which means good, and 'pheme' which means to talk. So etymologically means speaking using good words. It is reinforced by the opinion of Leech (1982: 45) which suggests that euphemism is the use of more terms polite for a disrespectful term.
Another opinion is given by Wijana (2008: 96) that euphemism is the using of words or other forms to avoid any form of prohibition or taboo form in the language. In line with this opinion, Kridalaksana (2008: 59) also states that euphemism is the use of words or other forms to avoid the form of ban or taboo.
Meanwhile, Allan and Burridge (1991: 11) argues that euphemism is the use of the term to replace a lacking expression to avoid the possibility of losing face, whether the interlocutor or third parties. Another opinion of Allan and Burridge (2016: 32) euphemism are words or phrases used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression. They avoid possible loss of face by the speaker, and also the hearer or some third party. In many ways euphemism has existed throughout recorded history. To an undesirable expression which in order to avoid the possible loss of face, euphemisms can be used as another way.
The words and expressions of euphemism allow us to talk about unpleasant things and eliminate discomforts, such as death and dying, unemployment, and crime. They also allow us to label unpleasant things and act so that what is being talked about becomes more attractive. Euphemism is something that very important in the community. Glorification of public places and elevating trivial matters, automatically, we change the name and replace it to make the words sound better, it is the re-naming of reality to fit the rules or norm that are pitched in society (Wardhaugh, 2006: 231).
From these opinions, it can be underlined that euphemism is a word, phrase, or other form that has a polite sense of value, far from the taboos and less deserving things to avoid from shame or losing face. Euphemism always avoids fear or forbidden things that have negative connotations. In addition, euphemism is a word that contains the form of politeness that applies in the community.

Types of Euphemism
The forms of euphemism are very diverse. Some researchers disclose their findings on the kinds of euphemism from their researches. They argue that the forms of euphemism can be words, phrases, clauses, sentences, idioms, abbreviations, numbers, repetitions, and foreign terms (Lilimiwirdi, 2011). Furthermore, Laili (2012) finds a kind of euphemism are words, phrases, clauses and sentences as follows:

a) Euphemisms in the form of words
Euphemisms in the form of words are divided into three categories namely the base words, the derivatives words, and the compound words. The word itself is also divided into three categories; they are noun, verbs and adjectives. The euphemism in the form of derivative words is also divided into three categories namely objects, verbs and adjectives. While euphemism is a compound word that stand alone.

b) Euphemisms in the form of phrases
Euphemisms in the form of phrases are divided into three categories: noun phrases, adjective phrases and verb phrases. The noun phrase consists of the core elements and a modifying element in which the core element is a noun word with modifier may be an adjective, noun or otherwise either original or derivative. An example is 'sidoarjo mud' where noun "mud" is an element core that modified or clarified by adjective 'sidoarjo'. As well with adjective and verb phrases, each phrase consists of two elements, they are core and modifier. The core element of the adjective phrase is the adjective and the core element the verb phrase is a verb.

c) Euphemism in the form of clause
Euphemism in the form of clause can occupy positions as core clauses or subordinate clauses. Example: 1) The effect of this lead to the child according to Prasetyo, et al. (2014), environmental expert from New York University, can decrease children's intelligence and mental disability, and. 2) Letting the lemurs extracted from the natural mullet is equal to drive to the death gate. The letters in italics are a form of euphemism in the form of clauses. The first example is showing the shape euphemism clause form that occupies the core clause. While the second examples a form of euphemism that occupies a subordinate clause.

d) Euphemism in the form of sentences
Euphemism in the form of sentence occurs where in one intact sentence contains the phrase of euphemism, for example 'As a result, the climate is like a distant tub roast of fire '. The expression of the example is a form of euphemism which means 'unsuitable climate conditions expected'. Use this euphemism aims to hide the facts.

Form of Euphemism
The formation of euphemism can be done in a variety of ways. Therefore, some experts put forward their opinion on the formation of the euphemism. The first opinion will be presented here is the opinion or theory of Sebkova (2012: 8) which suggests that there are at least three ways to form euphemism that are: a) Borrowing words or terms from other languages for example in English, Latin and French terms are often used for example: "halitosis" referring to "bad breath", then the French term au naturel for "naked" and so on., and b) Semantic changes, in this category include: a) circumlocution, for example "little girl's room" replaces "toilets", b) widening (expansion), for example "do it" to have sex "intercourse", c) metaphorical transfer, for example the "cavalry's come" is a euphemism of "menstruation".
The next opinion came from Warren (1992: 130-133) that divides the four mechanisms and methods of euphemism formation, including:

a) Word formation devices.
Warren divided five ways to form euphemisms using this mechanism. Examples: 1) Compounding: "hand job" [masturbation], the combining of two individually innocuous words forms a euphemism for an otherwise unacceptable term, 2) Derivation: "fellatio" [oral sex], the modification of a Latin term ("fellare", to suck) to form a printable modern English word (Rawson, 1981), 3) Blends: Warren gives no examples of what she means by this term, or of how a blend is formed, 4) Acronyms: SNAFU ['Situation Normal All Fucked Up'], a military euphemism for a possibly catastrophic event, and 5) Onomatopoeia: "bonk" [sexual intercourse], it's the sound of "things" hitting together during the sexual act is employed to refer to the act itself.

c) Loan Words.
Some loan words that most, but not all, of the forbidden words seem derived from Saxon, while the form of euphemism to convey the same meaning is Latin-French. The following examples include: 1) In French "mot" [cunt] (Allan and Burridge 1991: 95), "infidelity (e)" [implies extramarital engagement] and "lingerie" [underwear], 2) Latin: "faeces" [excrement] and "anus" [ass-hole]. Latin is favored because uneducated young people sometimes cannot interpret its meaning (Allan and Burridge,ibid: 19), and 3) In other languages, for example the Spanish "cojones" [testis] and "schmuck" [penises] in Yiddish which can literally mean 'pendant'.

d. Semantic innovation.
In this case, "senses established by word or word combination" (Warren, 1992:133). Examples of the seven semantic innovation categories shared by Warren are: 1) Particularisation: a term commonly used, for 'particular' in a reasonable context, such as 'satisfy' for [orgasm] and 'innocence' for [virgins], both of which require conclusions based on the context by the reader / hearer to be understood, 2) Implication: In this case, several steps are required to reach the intended meaning, e.g. 'loose', which means 'unattached', which can leads to the interpretation of the meaning [sexually easy/ available]. Warren, however, warns the possibility of misinterpretation in this type of euphemism, although this seems to be possible in some examples of 'semantic innovation', 3) Metaphor: the examples of metaphor is a multitude of "red' color that refers to menstruation, centering around 'red', e.g. "cavalry has come" which has a reference meaning to the British cavalry red coats, "it is red letter day" and "flying the red flag ". (Allan and Burridge, 1991: 82). Some of metaphorical euphemisms such as "globes", "brown eyes" and "melons" refers to [breasts] (Rawson, 1981: 38), and "riding" [sex], which is common in some languages, including English, Greek and Middle Dutch, 4) Metonym, it can be said to be 'general-forspecific', this category includes the word "It" [sex] and "things" that fit the context of [male sexual / female organs, etc.] in general, 5) Reversal or called 'irony' includes the word 'blessed' [damned] and ''enviable disease" [syphilis], both of which can be a reference to something' bad 'by using the opposite, 6) Understatement or litotes. The words include "sleeping" [dead], "act" [murder / rape] and "not too bright" [thick / stupid], and 7) Overstatement or hyperbola. Examples are "fight to glory" [death] and some are included in Rawson's rule (1981: 11) the longer the title, the lower the rank. "For example, "visual engineer" [window cleaner] and "Personal Assistant" [Secretary], "Special Activity" [cook]. These categories are said to be formers of euphemism, but which would be regarded as Warren's models are only four main categories formation of euphemisms above. Wijana and Rohmadi (2008:104-109) explains that there are 5 kinds of functions/benefits of euphemism as follows:

a) Euphemism as a tool to smoothing speech.
This function is the most common function of euphemism. Words used that have bad, vulgar, unpleasant, terrible, low-connotation meaning and soon must be expressed in indirect ways to avoid social barriers and conflicts. Example: maid replaced with prambers, deviated smoothed by cheating and others. By using speeches that are polite and refined to speakers can maintain self-image and can foster harmonious relationships with the other person.

b) Euphemism as a tool to keep something secret in medicine.
The euphemism can be used to keep something secret, such as a disease that will caused something worries for the patient or the listener. Probably also because the diseases must be kept secret from others who are not entitled because it is very serious. Examples: cancer and syphilis, doctors often keep secret by mentioning just CA and GO abbreviations.

c) Euphemism as a tool for diplomacy.
Officials often pack their words in forms of euphemism in order to provide satisfactory answers so that things do not happen unwanted. Example: the expression of price increase in a press conference is often called a price adjustment, in often stating the proposal is accommodated or considered when the proposal is rejected, the police often said to be safeguarded, lodged, questioned to replace detention, arrested.

d) Euphemism as an Educational Tool.
In this case children are taught to use smoothed language by avoiding direct mention of words that have less polite value. The avoidance brings up typical words to 27 small children who are euphemistic words. Example: defecate into e'ek, urinate into pee, bathe into packpung. Then the names of animals also avoided the direct mention of replaced with onomatopoea as dogs were replaced by guguk, cats replaced pus, and goats replaced mbek.

e) Euphemism as a Tool to Resist the Dangers.
The use of a number of euphemisms is one of human effort to obtain peace, safety and prosperity. In the use of Malay, the word tiger and snake are replaced with grandmother and roots by people walking in the forest to obtain safety. In fact, in Java, rats are replaced with Den Bagus, while in Bali it is replaced with Jero Ketut, so they are not disturbed by these animals. In the same case Laili (2012) found the functions of euphemisms at least 13 kinds, namely: hiding facts, showing respect, avoiding taboos, insinuating, showing concern, giving advice, exaggerating, showing evidence, information, avoid words that cause panic, disgust or trauma, accuse or blame, criticize, and warn.
While according to some linguists that resumed by Nordquist (2018) in his article, euphemism has other functions, they are:

a) Euphemism as Comfort Words
Euphemism can be said to be a fight to comfort or a way to reduce tension in speaking. Those are words of comfort. The euphemism discourse soften the crude words, smooth the rough, and makes what sounds negative to be positive. Euphemism adds to the nuances and ambiguities of conversations that are often understood. Euphemism can also be a tool for discussing the touching subjects without having to explain more to what we are talking about.

b) Euphemism as Dangerous Disguises
There are some words that are well intentioned and sometimes helpful when replaced with euphemism, but euphemism is also dangerous. They can accompany us not to see. They can be disguises where bad truth is dimmed into our eyes. As in America, there are many poor people and most of their voices are silenced.

c) Euphemism as Shields
Speaking euphemistically is to speak in a language like a shield that fights fear, dislikes, and unpleasant. Euphemism is motivated by a desire not to attack, so it has more polite connotations; in the euphemism, at least it seeks to avoid too many negative connotations. In addition, euphemism is used to enhance denotatum (as a shield against scorn) and is used to conceal the unpleasant aspect of the denotatum (as a shield against anger) and they are used to accentuate identity within a group (as a shield against group intrusions).

d) Euphemisms as Secret Agents
Euphemism is a form unlike many young people thinks that is useless, rambling, and must be said frankly. Like them, they are such a secret agent in a complex mission, they have to be easily passed by chaos and make a point of constructive criticism and continue with calm patience. In other words, euphemism is an unpleasant truth that is diplomatic".

e) Euphemism as Spin
In practice, euphemism is often compared to the coating of sugar in contemporary language. In the same way, euphemism can also be used to neutralize politics or negativity in order to confuse, to hide meaning, or to deceive directly. Euphemism is often regarded as a spin, and is often used by politicians, bureaucrats, and advertisers to pack interesting ideas, policies and products through dishonest or manipulative means.

Buginese at a Glance
Buginese is one of the ethnic groups in Southeast Asia which is the part of the Austronesian family with four million populations located on the southern peninsula of South Sulawesi island. (Pelras, 2006:1). Buginese's main characters are language and culture (Darmapoetra, 2014:6). Buginese language becomes a communication tools for all cultural activities. Those languages used to spreading religion, trading, farming and literature (Mattulada, 2015).
South Sulawesi and West Sulawesi that occupied by four main ethnics, they are Buginese, Makassarese, Mandarese, and Torajarese have their own regional languages as a forefathers that become concrete characteristic for their identity that differ them to other ethnics (Darmawati and Gustini, 2011).
Buginese language is one of the four major language groups in South Sulawesi. The three of western of Austronesian languages are Mandar, Toraja and Makassarese. Buginese speaker are dominated in South Sulawesi, like in Bone, Soppeng, Wajo, Sidrap, Pinrang, Barru, Sinjai, and Pare-pare. While in the other area like Bulukumba, Pangkep, and Maros theytend to speak both of Buginese and Makassar (Rahmiati, 2015:26) Buginese language used in each region has a relative small differentiation, known as dialect (Pelras, 2006:4). And then he adds that although there are some differences in dialects and expression, most Buginese speakers can understand each other. The Buginese people still think that they are different from the buginese in another former state before (Bone, Wajo, Soppeng, Sidrap) or a small group of state (around Parepare and Suppa 'on the west coast and around Sinjai in the South).Language in these areas has been recognized by linguists as a dialect although there is still a relatively small difference with each other. (Grimes and Grimes in Rahmiati (2015:27) lists ten dialect of Bugis :Luwu, Wajo, Palakka (Bone), Enna (Sinjai), Soppeng, Sidenreng, Pare-pare, Sawitto (Pinrang), Tallumpanua (Campalagian) and ugi' riawa (Pasangkayu). Darmapoetra (2004:vi) states that Buginese avoid using taboo words such as "balesu", "buaja", "gunturu", etc. They keep away from using these words because of to avoid unwilling thing that may happen.Buginese are one of the most complex ethnic groups and appear highly hierarchical in any archipelago, with different strata and composed of several degrees of mobility. This hierarchical system can be traced by looking at social status, referred to as "onrong", "onro" and "a'battireng" which means "place" or "derajat" and "status" which both means 'social status'.
There are four important statuses in Buginese. The first important status is the nobles known as bangsawan or to-arung, who have ancestors of the arung 'the king' in the past times and could preface their chosen names with honorific, (Rahmiati, 2015).
The second important status is religious status, influenced greatly by the strong adherence of the Buginese people to Islamic teaching and acquired such represent the performance of the pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia.
The third social status is educational status by going to universities to attain degrees, and therefore given the title to-acca 'clever people' after graduating from universities, people then get the chance to seek good and permanent jobs. This creates occupation status for Buginese people.
Buginese known as an ethnic that have a hard character and very respectability, sometimes to maintain their honor, they dispose to do violence, but behind their hard character, Buginese also known as a friendly, respectful and faithful ethnic (Pelras, 2006:5).

Research Method
The kind of research method that used in wrote this research is descriptive qualitative. Qualitative research is a method that uses literature at the start of a research plan to deliver an inductive design unless the type of qualitative withdrawal requires substantial literature (Creswell, 1994: 24) Qualitative research can show the research on the life of society, history, behavior, social movement, or kinship. In one hand, qualitative research is research that uses strategies to get data or information, actions and events associated with human life. This research is used to draw actual facts clearly. The essence of the qualitative research is to observe people in their environment and interact with them (Rahmiati, 2015: 50). Allan and Burridge (1991: 14) define sixteen ways in the formation of euphemism, they are: (1) Figurative expressions. This type is symbolism, simile or figurative. In this type of euphemism, it uses figure of speech such as simile, irony, personification, and etc. Example: "go to the happy hunting ground" to reveal "die". (2) Flippancy. Flippancy has a meaning beyond the existing statement. The example is "kick the bucket" euphemism for "die".(3) Remodeling. Remodeling is re-modeled the already-expressed phrase, remodeling can occur at the level of words, phrases, and others. Example: "shoot, sheet" is re-modeling from "shit." (4). Circumlocutions. Circumlocution is the use of some longer and indirect word. Example: "categorical inaccuracy" refers to 'lie'. (5) Clipping. Clipping is cutting, making short or simple. Example: "bra" clipping from "brassiere". (6) Acronym. An acronym is a type of euphemism that combines several words into one word. Example: "SNAFU" which is an acronym of the "Situation Normal, All Fucked Up" indicates the possibility of a disaster event. (7) Abbreviation. Abbreviation is the type of euphemism that stands for words to be some letters. Example: "Bowel Movement" to "B.M" which means to defecate. (8) Omission. Omission is to perform disappearance in some phrase, which is aims to soften and the hearer already understand from the intent of the phrase. Example: "F" instead of writing or saying "Fuck". (9) One for One Substitution. One for one substitution is one word that has a similarity of meaning, but more subtle can replacing one more coarse word. Example: "bottom" replaces "butt". (10) General for specific. A common word becomes a special word. Example: "Nether region" which became the euphemism of "genitals". (11) Part for whole euphemism.

Form of Euphemism
A special word becomes a common word. Example: "spend a penny" for "go to bathroom" (usually used if someone go to the bathroom and pay a penny or cent). The formation of this type is very rarely. (12) Hyperbole. Hyperbole is an exaggerated phrase. For example: "flight to glory" which means "death". (13) Understatement. Contrast with hyperbole, Understatement is a phrase down or disparage. Example: "sleep" which can be a euphemism from "died". (14) Jargon. This type uses words that have the same meaning but different forms, technical terms or terminology in a particular field. Example: "feaces" which is a term in medicine or health to replace the word "shit". (15) Colloquial. This type uses a daily phrase for refine and make polite. Example: word "period" used for replaces "menstruate". (16) Loan words. Loan word is borrowing from a foreign language to reveal something in order impressed smooth. Example: use of "defecate" word which is a loan from Latin to replace "shit".

Form of Euphemism in English and Buginese
After investigating and categorizing the data, it is found the form of Euphemism in English and Buginese as in the following Table: (Sick) 19.
Metaphor -Mapute coppeng (Black) From the table above we can see that not every form of euphemism in English are covered in Buginese. Several forms for example acronym and abbreviation do not exist because that forms do not used in Buginese. Whereas there are four forms that the researcher found in Buginese that do not exist in English, they are reduplication, repetition, irony and metaphor.

Function of Euphemism in English and Buginese
Euphemism used broadly in society, almost every person used euphemism in their utterances. Euphemism expressions are needed in communication, it is necessary to pay attention to such expression because at the present time euphemism becomes a new vocabulary used in society.
Euphemism becomes an important part in communication because euphemism has a special function to create harmony in social life. According to Allan and Burridge (1991: 11) the common functions of euphemism are: 1) 1) Avoiding taboos (body parts, special body parts, sex, menstruation, illness, mental disability, something discharged or excreted and death), 2) Avoiding objects that are considered frightening, such as about war, sickness, supernatural things, including God, things related to death, and also something about animals, and 3) As sense of respect to the words which is uncomfortable for speaking, especially for matters relating to religion, politics, God, physical, illness, physical, mental or criminal action.  Allan and Burridge (1991: 14) define 16 ways in the formation of euphemism while in Buginese there are 18 forms of euphemism. It shown that Buginese are more complex than English. There are four forms in Buginese that does not covered in English, they are reduplication, repetition, irony and metaphor.

Conclusion
Reduplication used to avoid social barriers, its mean that the hearers will accept, receive and don't fell offended from the words even tough that words contains bad, vulgar, unpleasant, and low connotation meaning. Repetition used to minimize the effect of the words in same line to save the hearer feeling from shock and afraid, for example the word "makelu" means sick, for the hearer it will be hear as a serious illness but if we used the word "makelu-kelu" it will be meat as a not serious illness. Makelu-kelu could be meant only got fever and it will make the hearer more relax to respond. Irony used to hide the fact for example the word "beautiful" to mean "ugly", "young" to mean "mature", "strong" to mean "weak" and so on. Metaphor is used to smooth the meaning by imagine the referent so the hearer will not directly shock with the real fact that speaker mention.
According to Allan and Burridge (1991: 11) the common functions of euphemism are: avoiding taboo, avoiding frightening and as a sense of respect, while function of euphemism in Buginese are: avoiding taboo, avoiding frightening, as a sense of respect, soften the meaning, minimize the effect of the meaning and hide the fact.